Community management of lower respiratory tract infection in adults
References

1 Effect of inhaled triamcinolone on the decline in pulmonary function in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1902-9. [Back]

2 Irwin RS, Madison JM. The diagnosis and treatment of cough. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1715-21. [Back]

3 Metlay JP, Kapoor WN, Fine MJ. Does this patient have community-acquired pneumonia? Diagnosing pneumonia by history and physical examination. JAMA 1997; 278: 1440-5. [Back] [section 1] [section 4]

4 Fry J. Common diseases: their nature, incidence and care. 4th ed. Lancaster: MTP; 1985. [Back]

5 McCormick A, Fleming D, Charlton J. Morbidity statistics from general practice: fourth national study 1991-1992. London: HMSO; 1995. [Back]

6 Schaberg T, Gialdini-Grassi G, Huchon G, Leophante P, Manresa F, Woodhead M. An analysis of decisions by European general practitioners to admit to hospital patients with lower respiratory tract infections. The European Study Group of Community Acquired Pneumonia (ESOCAP) of the European Respiratory Society. Thorax 1996; 51: 1017-22. [Back]

7 Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Sande MA. Antibiotic prescribing for adults with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis by ambulatory care physicians. JAMA 1997; 278: 901-4. [Back]

8 Mainous AG 3rd, Hueston WJ, Eberlein C. Colour of respiratory discharge and antibiotic use. Lancet 1997; 350: 1077. [Back]

9 Dowell SF, Marcy SM, Phillips WR, Gerber MA, Schwartz B. Principles of judicious use of antimicrobial agents for pediatric upper respiratory tract infections. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 163-5. [Back]

10 Seaton RA, Steinke DT, Phillips G, MacDonald T, Davey PG. Community antibiotic therapy, hospitalization and subsequent respiratory tract isolation of Haemophilus influenzae resistant to amoxycillin: a nested case-control study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 46: 307-9. [Back] [section 1] [section 7]

11 Davey P, Rutherford D, Graham B, Lynch B, Malek M. Repeat consultations after antibiotic prescribing for respiratory infection: a study in one general practice. Br J Gen Pract 1994; 44: 509-13. [Back] [section 1] [section 7]

12 Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). Management of lung cancer. Edinburgh: SIGN; 1998. (SIGN publication no. 23). [Back]

13 Macfarlane JT, Colville A, Guion A, Macfarlane RM, Rose DH. Prospective study of aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract infections in the community. Lancet 1993; 341: 511-4. [Back] [section 2] [section 2.2.1]

14 Woodhead MA, Macfarlane JT, McCracken JS, Rose DH, Finche RG. Prospective study of the aetiology and outcome of pneumonia in the community. Lancet 1987; 1: 671-4. [Back] [section 2] [section 5] [section 5.1.4]

15 Houston MS, Silverstein MD, Suman VJ. Community-acquired lower respiratory tract infection in the elderly: a community-based study of incidence and outcome. J Am Board Fam Pract 1995; 8: 347-56. [Back] [section 2] [section 5]

16 Guest JF, Morris A. Community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections: the annual cost to the National Health Service. Br J Med Econ 1996;
10: 263-73. [Back]

17 Macfarlane JT. Lower respiratory tract infection and pneumonia in the community. Semin Respir Infect 1999; 14: 151-62. [Back]

18 Woodhead M, Grassi G, Huchon GJ, Leophante P, Manresa F, Schaberg T. Use of investigation in lower respiratory tract infections in the community: a European survey. Eur Respir J 1996; 9: 1596-600. [Back]

19 Woodhead M. Management of pneumonia in the outpatient setting . Semin Respir Infect 1998; 13: 8-16. [Back] [section 3] [section 5]

20 Neill AM, Martin IR, Weir R, Anderson R, Cherechsky A, Epton MJ, et al. Community acquired pneumonia: aetiology and usefulness of severity criteria on admission. Thorax 1996; 51: 1010-6. [Back]

21 Finch RG, Woodhead MA. Practical considerations and guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia. Drugs 1998; 55: 31-45. [Back]

22 Dean NC, Silver MP, Bateman KA, James B, Hadlock CJ, Hale D. Implementation of admission decision support for community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 2000; 117: 1368-77. [Back]

23 Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, Hanusa BH, Weissfeld, LA, Singer DE, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 243-50. [Back]

24 Moore TA, Tuazon CU. When to hospitalize for community acquired pneumonia. J Respir Dis 1996; 17: 878-93. [Back]

25 Bartlett J. Treatment of community acquired pneumonia. Chemotherapy 2000; 46: 24-31. [Back]

26 Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Consensus statement on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Edinburgh: The College; In press 2002. [Back]

27 Anthonisen NR, Manfreda J, Warren CP, Hershfield ES, Harding GK, Nelson NA. Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Intern Med 1987; 106: 196-204. [Back] [section 4] [section 4.2]

28 Leeder SR. Role of infection in the cause and course of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. J Infect Dis 1975; 131: 731-42. [Back]

29 Murphy TF, Sethi S. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146: 1067-83. [Back]

30 Gump DW, Phillips CA, Forsyth BR, McIntosh K, lamborn KR, Stouch WH. Role of infection of chronic bronchitis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976; 113: 465-74. [Back]

31 Tager I, Speizer FE. Role of infection in chronic bronchitis. N Eng J Med 1975; 292: 563-71. [Back]

32 Davies BI, Maesen FP, Teengs JP, Baur C. The quinolones in chronic bronchitis. Pharm Weekbl Sci 1986; 8: 53-9. [Back]

33 Basran GS, Joseph J, Abbas AM, Hughes C, Tillotson GS. Treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive airways disease-a comparison of amoxycillin and ciprofloxacin. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990; 26: 19-24. [Back]

34 Aldons PM. A comparison of clarithromycin with ampicillin in the treatment of outpatients with acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 27: 101-8. [Back]

35 Bachand RT Jr. A comparative study of clarithromycin and penicillin VK in the treatment of outpatients with streptococcal pharyngitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 27: 75-82. [Back]

36 Lindsay G, Scover HJ, Carnegie CM. Safety and efficacy of femafloxacin versus ciprofloxacin in lower respiratory tract infections: a randomized, double-blind trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992; 30: 89-100. [Back]

37 Neu HC, Chick TW. Efficacy and safety of clarithromycin compared to cefixime as outpatient treatment of lower respiratory tract infections. Chest 1993; 104: 1393-9. [Back]

38 Grayston JT. Infections caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae strain TWAR. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 15: 757-63. [Back]

39 Nenning ME, Shinefield HR, Edwards KM, Black SM, Fireman BH. Prevalence and incidence of adult pertussis in an urban population. JAMA 1996; 275: 1672-4. [Back]

40 Sethi S, Murphy TF. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 2000: a state-of-the-art review. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14: 336-63. [Back] [section 4] [section 4.2]

41 Sethi S. Etiology and management of infections in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Pulmon Med 1999; 6: 327-32. [Back]

42 Heineman HS, Chawla JK, Lofton WM. Misinformation from sputum culture without microscopic examination. J Clin Microbiol 1977; 6: 518-27. [Back]

43 Johnson PH, Macfarlane JT, Humphreys H. How is sputum microbiology used in general practice? Respir Med 1996; 90: 87-8. [Back]

44 Shackley P, Cairns J, Gould IM. Accelerated bacteriological evaluation in the management of lower respiratory tract infection in general practice. J Antimicrobial Chemother 1997; 39: 663-6. [Back]

45 Stockley RA, O'Brien C, Pye A, Hill SL. Relationship of sputum color to nature and outpatient management of acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest 2000; 117: 1638-45. [Back] [section 4] [section 7]

46 Eller J, Ede A, Schaberg T, Niederman MS, Mauch H, Lode H. Infective exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: relationship between bacteriologic aetiology and lung function. Chest 1998; 113: 1542-8. [Back]

47 Miravitlles M, Espinosa C, Fernandez-Laso E, Martos JA, Maldondao JA, Gallego M. Relationship between bacterial flora in sputum and functional impairment in patients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Study group of Bacterial Infection in COPD. Chest 1999; 116: 40-6. [Back]

48 Mower WR, Sachs C, Nicklin EL, Safa P, Baraff LJ. Effect of routine emergency department triage pulse oximetry screening on medical management. Chest 1995; 108: 1297-302. [Back]

49 Saint S, Bent S, Vittinghoff E, Grady D. Antibiotics in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. A meta-analysis. JAMA 1995; 273: 957-60. [Back]

50 Niroumand M, Grossman RF. Airway infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1998; 12: 671-88. [Back] [section 4] [section 6]

51 Davies BI, Maesen FP. Quinolones in chest infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1986; 18: 296-9. [Back]

52 BTS Guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults. Thorax 2001; 56: 1-64. [Back] [section 5] [section 5.2]

53 Niederman MS, Bass JB Jr, Campbell GD, Fein AM, Grossman RF, Mandell LA, et al. Guidelines for the initial management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia: diagnosis assessment of severity, and initial antimicrobial therapy. American Thoracic Society. Medical Section of the American Lung Association. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 1418-26. [Back]

54 Bartlett JG, Breiman RF, Mandell LA, File TM Jr. Community-acquired pneumonia in adults: guidelines for management. The Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 811-38. [Back] [section 5] [section 5.1]

55 Marrie TJ, Peeling RW, Fine MJ, Singer DE, Coley CM, Kapoor WN. Ambulatory patients with community-acquired pneumonia: the frequency of atypical agents and clinical course. Am J Med 1996; 101: 508-15. [Back]

56 Surveillance Report: travel Health. SCIEH Weekly Report 2001; 35: 222. [cited on 22 Apr 2002]. Available from url: http://www.show.scot.nhs.uk/scieh/PDF/pdf2001/0135.pdf [Back]

57 Felmingham D, Gruneberg RN. A multicentre collaborative study of the antimicrobial susceptibility of community-acquired, lower respiratory tract pathogens 1992-1993: the Alexander Project. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 38(Suppl A): 1-57. [Back]

58 Thornsberry C, Ogilvie P, Kahn J, Mauriz Y. Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella cattarrhalis in the United States in 1996-1997 respiratory season. The Laboratory Investigator Group. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1997; 29: 249-57. [Back]

59 Latorre C, Juncosa T, Sanfeliu I. Antibiotic resistance and serotypes of 100 Streptococcus pneumoniae strains isolated in a children's hospital in Barcelona, Spain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985; 28: 357-9. [Back]

60 Marton A, Gulyas M, Munoz R, Tomasz A. Extremely high incidence of antibiotic resistance in clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Hungary. J Infect Dis 1991; 163: 542-8. [Back]

61 Parry CM, White RR, Rideway ER, Corkill JE, Smith GW. The reproducibility of sputum gram film interpretation. J Infect 2000; 41: 55-60. [Back]

62 Hill AT, Campbell EJ, Hill SL, Bayley DL, Stockley RA. Association between airway bacterial load and markers of airway inflammation in patients with stable chronic bronchitis. Am J Med 2000; 109: 288-95. [Back]

63 Wilson MJ, Martin DE. Quantitative sputum culture as a means of excluding false positive reports in the routine microbiology laboratory. J Clin Path 1972; 25: 697-700. [Back]

64 Monso E, Ruiz J, Rosell A, Manterola J, Fiz J, Morera J, et al. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A study of stable and exacerbated outpatients using the protected specimen brush. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1316-20. [Back]

65 Pollock HM, Hawkins EL, Bonner JR, Sparkman T, Bass JB Jr. Diagnosis of bacterial pulmonary infections with quantitative protected catheter cultures obtained during bronchoscopy. J Clin Microbiol 1983; 17: 255-9. [Back]

66 Monroe PW, Muchmore HG, Felton FG, Pirtle JK. Quantitation of microorganisms in sputum. Appl Microbiol 1969; 18: 214-20. [Back]

67 Guckian JC, Christensen WD. Quantitative culture and gram stain of sputum in pneumonia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978; 118: 997-1005. [Back]

68 Melbye H, Straume B, Aasebo U, Dale K. Diagnosis of pneumonia in adults in general practice. Relative importance of typical symptoms and abnormal chest signs evaluated against a radiographic reference standard. Scand J Prim Health Care 1992; 10: 226-33. [Back]

69 Melbye H, Straume B, Brox J. Laboratory tests for pneumonia in general practice: the diagnostic values depend on the duration of illness. Scand J Prim Health Care 1992; 10: 234-40. [Back]

70 Smith RP, Lipworth BJ, Cree IA, Spiers EM, Winter JH. C-reactive protein. A clinical marker in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 1995; 108: 1288-91. [Back]

71 Diederichsen HZ, Skamling M, Diederichsen A, Grinsted P, Antonsen S, Petersen PH. Randomised controlled trial of CRP rapid test as a guide to treatment of respiratory infections in general practice. Scand J Prim Health Care 2000; 18: 39-43. [Back]

72 Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, Macfarlane R, Rose D, Weston V, et al. Prospective study of the incidence, aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract illness in the community. Thorax 2001; 56:109-14. [Back]

73 Jonsson JS, Gislason T, Gislason D, Sigurdsson JA. Acute bronchitis and clinical outcome three years later: prospective cohort study. BMJ 1998; 317: 1433. [Back]

74 Melbye H, Berdal BP, Straume B, Russell H, Vorland L, Thacker WL. Pneumonia a clinical or radiographic diagnosis? Etiology and clinical features of lower respiratory tract infection in adults in general practice. Scand J Infect Dis 1992; 24: 647-55. [Back]

75 Holmberg H, Kragsbjerg P. Association of pneumonia and lung cancer: the value of convalescent chest radiography and follow-up. Scand J Infect Dis 1993; 25: 93-100. [Back]

76 Fahey T, Stocks N, Thomas T. Quantitative systematic review of randomised controlled trials comparing antibiotic with placebo for acute cough in adults. BMJ 1998; 316: 906-10. [Back]

77 Orr PH, Scherer K, McDonald A, Moffatt ME. Randomized placebo-controlled trials of antibiotics for acute bronchitis: a critical review of the literature. J Fam Pract 1993; 36: 507-12. [Back]

78 Smucny JJ, Becker LA, Glazier RH, McIsaac W. Are antibiotics effective treatment for acute bronchitis? A meta-analysis. J Fam Pract 1998; 47: 453-60. [Back]

79 Bent S, Saint S, Vittinghoff E, Grady D. Antibiotics in acute bronchitis: a meta-analysis. Am J Med 1999; 107: 62-7. [Back]

80 Smucny J, Fahey T, Becker L, Glazier R. Antibiotics for acute bronchitis (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2002. Oxford: Update Software. [Back]

81 Huchon G, Woodhead M. Management of adult community acquired lower respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir Rev 1998; 61: 391-426. [Back]

82 Butler CC, Rollnick S, Kinnersley P, Jones A, Stott N. Reducing antibiotics for respiratory tract symptoms in primary care: consolidating 'why' and considered 'how'. Br J Gen Pract 1998; 48: 1865-70. [Back]

83 Antibiotic treatment of adults with chest infection in general practice. Drug Ther Bull 1998; 36: 41-3. [Back]

84 Schwartz B. Preventing the spread of antimicrobial resistance among bacterial respiratory pathogens in industrialized countries: the case for judicious antimicrobial use. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 28: 211-3. [Back]

85 Shafran SD, Conly JM. Antibiotics for community-acquired respiratory tract infections: are the benefits worth the risks? Can J Infect Dis 1998; 9: 202-4. [Back]

86 Macfarlane J, Holmes WF, Macfarlane R. Do hospitals physicians have a role in reducing antibiotic prescribing in the community? Thorax 2000; 55: 153-8. [Back]

87 Audit Commission for Local Authorities and the National Health Service in England and Wales. A prescription for improvement: towards more rational prescribing in general practice. London: HMSO; 1994. [Back]

88 Mevius DJ, Sprenger MJ, Wegener HC. EU conference 'The microbial threat'. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1999; 11: 101-5. [Back]

89 Gould IM. A review of the role of antibiotic policies in the control of antibiotic resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 43: 459-65. [Back]

90 Standing Medical Advisory Committee Sub-Group on Antimicrobial Resistance. The path of least resistance. Main report. London: Department of Health; 2000. [cited on 22 Apr 2002]. Available from url: http://www.doh.gov.uk/smac1.htm [Back]

91 Granizo JJ, Aguilar L, Casal J, Garcia-Rey C, Dal-Re R, Baquero F. Streptococcus pneumoniae resistance to erythromycin and penicillin in relation to macrolide and beta-lactam consumption in Spain (1979-1997). J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 46: 767-73. [Back]

92 Guillemot D, Carbon C, Balkau B, Geslin P, Lecoeur H, Vauzelle-Kervroedan F, et al. Low dosage and long treatment duration of beta-lactam: risk factors for carriage of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. JAMA 1998; 279: 365-70. [Back]

93 Tran JQ, Ballow CH, Forrest A, Hyatt JM, Sands MF, Peloquin CA, et al. Comparison of the abilities of grepafloxacin and clarithromycin to eradicate potential bacterial pathogens from the sputa of patients with chronic bronchitis: influence of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic variables. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 45: 9-17. [Back]

94 Legg JM, Bint AJ. Will pneumococci put quinolones in their place? J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 44: 425-7. [Back]

95 Schrag SJ, Perrot V, Levin BR. Adaption to the fitness costs of antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli. Proc Soc Lond 1997; 264: 1287-91. [Back]

96 Magee JT, Pritchard EL, Fitzgerald KA, Dunstan FD, Howard AJ. Antibiotic prescribing and antibiotic resistance in community practice: retrospective study 1996-8. BMJ 1999; 319: 1239-40. [Back]

97 Sportel JH, Koëter GH, van Altena R, Löwenberg A, Boersma WG. Relation between beta-lactamase producing bacteria and patient characteristics in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Thorax 1995; 50: 249-53. [Back]

98 Syrogiannopoulos GA, Grivea IN, Davies TA, Katopodis GD, Appelbaum PC, Beratis NG. Antimicrobial use and colonization with erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Greece during the first 2 years of life. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 887-93. [Back]

99 Ghaffar F, Muniz LS, Katz K, Reynolds J, Smith JL, Davis P, et al. Effects of amoxycillin/clavulanate or azithromycin on nasopharyngeal carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae in children with acute otitis media. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 875-80. [Back]

100 Empey DW, Laitinen LA, Young GA, Bye CE, Hughes JT. Comparison of the antitussive effects of codeine phosphate 20 mg, dextromethorphan 30 mg and noscapine 30 mg using citric acid-induced cough in normal subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1979; 6: 393-7. [Back]

101 Karttunen P, Tukiained H, Silvasti M, Kolonen S. Antitussive effect of dextromethorphan and dextromethorphan-salbutamol combination in healthy volunteers with artificially induced cough. Respiration 1987; 52: 49-53. [Back]

102 Grattan TJ, Marshall AE, Higgins KS, Morice AH. The effect of inhaled and oral dextromethorphan on citric acid induced cough in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 39: 261-3. [Back]

103 Edwards GF, Lewis HE, Stafford D. The effect of pholcodine with and without an antihistamine on cough and expectoration. Br J Dis Chest 1977; 71: 245-52. [Back]

104 Eccles R, Morris S, Jawad M. Lack of effect of codeine in the treatment of cough associated with acute upper respiratory tract infection. J Clin Pharm Ther 1992; 17: 175-80. [Back]

105 Freestone C, Eccles R. Assessment of the antitussive efficacy of codeine in cough associated with common cold. J Pharm Pharmacol 1997; 49: 1045-9. [Back]

106 Schroeder K, Fahey T. Systematic review of randomised controlled trials of over the counter cough medicines for acute cough in adults. BMJ 2002; 324: 329-31. [Back]

107 Sheikh A, Nolan D, Greenstone M. Long-acting beta-2-agonists for bronchiectasis (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2002. Oxford: Update Software. [Back]

108 British Medical Association, Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. British National Formulary 42. London: The Association, The Society; 2001. [cited on 22 Apr 2002]. Available from url: http://www.bnf.org [Back]

109 Raw M, McNeill A, West R. Smoking cessation: evidence based recommendations for the healthcare system. BMJ 1999; 318: 182-5. [Back]

110 Fiore MC. US public health service clinical practice guideline: treating tobacco use and dependence. Respir Care 2000; 45: 1200-62. [Back]

111 Silagy C, Lancaster T, Stead L, Mant D, Fowler G. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2002. Oxford: Update Software. [Back]

112 Hurt RD, Sachs DP, Glover ED, Offord KP, Johnston JA, Dale LC, et al. A comparison of sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1195-202. [Back]

113 Jorenby DE, Leischow SJ, Nides MA, Rennard SI, Johnston JA, Hughes AR, et al. A controlled trial of sustained-release bupropion, a nicotine patch, or both for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 685-91. [Back]

114 Hayford KE, Patten CA, Rummans TA, Schroeder DR, Offord KP, Croghan IT, et al. Efficacy of bupropion for smoking cessation in smokers with a former history of major depression or alcoholism. Br J Psychiatry 1999; 174: 173-8. [Back]

115 Department of Health. Flu immunisation policy for 2001. London: The Department; 2001. [cited on 22 Apr 2002]. Available from url: http://www.doh.gov.uk/flu.htm [Back]

116 Govaert TM, Dinant GJ, Aretz K, Masurel N, Sprenger MJ, Knottnerus JA. Adverse reactions to influenza vaccine in elderly people: randomised double blind placebo controlled trial. BMJ 1993; 307: 988-90. [Back]

117 Margolis KL, Nichol KL, Poland GA, Pluhar RE. Frequency of adverse reactions to influenza vaccine in the elderly. A randomised, placebo-controlled trial. JAMA 1990; 264: 1139-41. [Back]

118 Margolis KL, Poland GA, Nichol KL, MacPherson DS, Meyer JD, Korn JE, et al. Frequency of adverse reactions after influenza vaccination. Am J Med 1990; 88: 27-30. [Back]

119 Nichol KL, Margolis KL, Wuorenma J, Von Sternberg T. The efficacy and cost effectiveness of vaccination against influenza among elderly persons living in the community. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 778-84. [Back]

120 Ahmed AE, Nicholson KG, Nguyen-van-Tam JS. Reduction in mortality associated with influenza vaccine during 1989-90 epidemic. Lancet 1995; 346: 591-5. [Back]

121 Foster DA, Talsma A, Furumoto-Dawson A, Ohmit SE, Margulies JR, Arden NH, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness in preventing hospitalization for pneumonia in the elderly. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136: 296-307. [Back]

122 Ohmit SE, Monto AS. Influenza vaccine effectiveness in preventing hospitalization among the elderly during influenza type A and type B seasons. Int J Epidemiol 1995; 24: 1240-8. [Back]

123 Nichol KL. Complications of influenza and benefits of vaccination. Vaccine 1999; 17: S47- S52. [Back]

124 Siscovick DA, Raghunathan TE, Lin D, Weinman S, Arbogast P, Lemaitre RN, et al. Influenza vaccination and the risk of primary cardiac arrest. Am J Epidemiol 2000; 152: 674-7. [Back]

125 Fedson DS, Wajda A, Nicol JP, Hammond GW, Kaiser DL, Roos LL. Clinical effectiveness of influenza vaccination in Manitoba. JAMA 1993; 270: 1956-61. [Back]

126 Nichol KL, Baken L, Nelson A. Relation between influenza vaccination and outpatient visits, hospitalization, and mortality in elderly persons with chronic lung disease. Ann lntern Med 1999; 130: 397-403. [Back]

127 Gross PA, Hermogenes AW, Sacks HS, Lau J, Levandowski RA. The efficacy of influenza vaccine in elderly persons. A meta-analysis and review of the literature. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 518-27. [Back]

128 Carman WF, Elder AG, Wallace LA, McAulay K, Walker A, Murray GD, et al. Effects of influenza vaccination of health-care workers on mortality of elderly people in long-term care: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 355: 93-7. [Back]

129 Weingarten S, Staniloff H, Ault M, Miles P, Bamberger M, Meyer RD. Do hospital employees benefit from the influenza vaccine? A placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Gen Intern Med 1988; 3: 32-7. [Back]

130 Nichol KL, Lind A, Margolis K, Murdoch M, McFadden R, Hague M. The effectiveness of vaccination against influenza in healthy, working adults. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 889-93. [Back]

131 Bridges CB, Thompson WW, Meltzer MI, Reeve GR, Talamanti WJ, Lex NJ, et al. Effectiveness and cost-benefit of influenza vaccination of healthy working adults: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000; 284: 1655-63. [Back]

132 Kyaw MH, Clarke S, Edwards GF, Jones IG, Campbell H. Serotype/groups distribution and antimicrobial resistance of invasive pneumococcal isolates: implications for vaccine strategies. Epidemiol Infect 2001; 125: 561-72. [Back]

133 Macleod CA, Hodges RG, Heidelberger M, Bernhard WG. Prevention of pneumococcal pneumonia by immunization with specific capsular polysaccharides. J Exp Med 1945; 82: 445-65. [Back]

134 Austrian R, Douglas R, Schiffman G, Coetzee AM, Koornhof HJ, Hayden-Smith S, et al. Prevention of pneumococcal pneumonia by vaccination. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 1976; 33: 133-44. [Back]

135 Riley ID, Tarr PL, Andrew M, Pfeiffer M, Howard R, Challands P, et al. Immunisation with a polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine. Reduction of adult respiratory mortality in a New Guinea Highlands community. Lancet 1977; 1: 1338-41. [Back]

136 Smit P, Oberholzer D, Hayden-Smith S, Koornhof HJ, Helleman MR. Protective efficacy of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines. JAMA 1977; 238: 2613-6. [Back]

137 Simberkoff M, Cross A, Al-Ibrahim M, Baltch AL, Geisler PJ, Nadler J, et al. Efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine in high-risk patients. Results of a Veterans Administrative Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 1318-27. [Back]

138 Ortqvist A, Hedlund J, Burman LA, Elbel E, Hofer M, Leinonen M, et al. Randomised trail of 23-valent pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine in prevention of pneumonia in middle-aged and elderly people. Swedish Pneumococcal Vaccination Study Group. Lancet 1998; 351: 399-403. [Back]

139 Honkanen PO, Keistinen T, Miettinen L, Herva E, Sankilampi U, Laara E, et al. Incremental effectiveness of pneumococcal vaccine on simultaneously adminstered influenza vaccine in preventing pneumonia and pneumococcal pneumonia among persons aged 65 years or older. Vaccine 1999;
17: 2493-500. [Back]

140 Kaufman P. Pneumonia in old age. Active immunization against pneumonia with pneumococcus polysaccharide: results of a six-year study. Arch Intern Med 1947; 79: 518-31. [Back]

141 Leech JA, Gervais A, Ruben FL. Efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. CMAJ 1987; 136: 361-5. [Back]

142 Klastersky J, Mommen P, Cantraine F, Safary A. Placebo controlled pneumococcal immunization in patients with bronchogenic carcinoma. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 1986; 22: 807-13. [Back]

143 Davis AL, Aranda MD, Schiffman G, Christianson LC. Pneumococcal infection and immunologic response to pneumococcal vaccine in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A pilot study. Chest 1992; 2: 204-12. [Back]

144 French N, Nakiyingi J, Carpenter LM, Lugada E, Watera C, Moi K, et al. 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults: double blind, randomised and placebo controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 355: 2106-11. [Back]

145 Fine MJ, Smith MA, Carson CA, Meffe F, Sankey SS, Weissfeld LA, et al. Efficacy of pneumococcal vaccination in adults. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 2666-77. [Back]

146 Hutchison BG, Oxman AD, Shannon HS, Lloyd S, Altmayer CA, Thomas K. Clinical effectiveness of pneumococcal vaccine. Meta-analysis. Can Fam Phys 1999; 45: 2381-93. [Back]

147 Moore RA, Wiffen PJ, Lipsky BA. Are the pneumococcal polysaccaride vaccines effective? Meta-analysis of the prospective trials. BMC Fam Pract 2000; 1: 1. [Back]

148 Greenland S. Invited commentary: a critical look at some popular meta-analytic methods. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 140: 290-6. [Back]

149 Cook DJ, Sackett DL, Spitzer WO. Methodologic guidelines for systematic reviews of randomized control trials in health care from the Potsdam Consultation on Meta-Analysis. J Clin Epidemiol 1995; 48: 167-71. [Back]

150 Moher D, Cook DJ, Eastwood S, Olkin I, Rennie D, Stroup DF. Improving the quality of reports of meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials: the QUOROM statement. Quality of Reporting of Meta-analysis. Lancet 1999; 354: 1896-900. [Back]

151 Juni P, Witschi A, Bloch R, Egger M. The hazards of scoring the quality of clinical trials for meta-analysis. JAMA 1999; 282: 1054-60. [Back]

152 Stroup DF, Berlin JA, Morton SC, Olkin I, Williamson GD, Rennie D, et al. Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: a proposal for reporting. Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) group. JAMA 2000; 283: 2008-12. [Back]

153 Comstock GW. Evaluating vaccination effectiveness and vaccine efficacy by means of case-control studies. Epidemiol Rev 1994; 16: 77-89. [Back]

154 Clemens JD, Shapiro ED. Resolving the pneumococcal vaccine controversy: are there alternatives to randomized clinical trials? Rev Infect Dis 1984; 6: 589-600. [Back]

155 Shapiro E, Clemens JD. A controlled evaluation of the protective efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine for patients at high risk of serious pneumococcal infection. Ann Intern Med 1984; 101: 325-30. [Back]

156 Sims RV, Steinmann WC, McConville JH, King LR, Zwick WC, Schwartz JS. The clinical effectiveness of pneumococcal vaccine in the elderly. Ann Intern Med 1988; 108: 653-7. [Back]

157 Shapiro ED, Berg AT, Austrian R, Schroeder D, Parcells V, Margolis A, et al. The protective efficacy of polyvalent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 1453-60. [Back]

158 Farr BM, Johnston BL, Cobb DK, Fisch MJ, Germanson TP, Adal KA, et al. Preventing pneumococcal bacteremia in patients at risk. Results of matched case-control study. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155: 2336-40. [Back]

159 Forrester HL, Jahnigen DW, LaForce FM. Inefficacy of pneumococcal vaccine in a high-risk population. Am J Med 1987; 83: 425-30. [Back]

160 Christenson B, Lundbergh P, Hedlund J, Ortqvist A. Effects of a large-scale intervention with influenza and 23-valent pneumococcal vaccines in adults aged 65 years or older: a prospective study. Lancet 2001; 357: 1008-11. [Back]

161 Broome CV, Facklam RR, Fraser DW. Pneumococcal disease after pneumococcal vaccination: an alternative method to estimate the efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine. N Engl J Med 1980; 303: 549-52. [Back]

162 Bolan G, Broome CV, Facklam RR, Plikaytis BD, Fraser DW, Schlech WF. Pneumococcal vaccine efficacy in selected populations in the United States. Ann Intern Med 1986; 104: 1-6. [Back]

163 Butler JC, Breiman RF, Campbell JF, Lipman HB, Broome CV, Facklam RR. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine efficacy. An evaluation of current recommendations. JAMA 1993; 270: 1826-31. [Back]

164 Nichol KL, Baken L, Wuorenma J, Nelson A. The health and economic benefits associated with pneumococcal vaccination of elderly persons with chronic lung disease. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 2437-42. [Back]

165 Nichol KL. The additive benefits of influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations during influenza seasons among elderly persons with chronic lung disease. Vaccine 1999; 17: S91-3. [Back]

166 Fedson DS, Musher D, Eskola J. Pneumococcal vaccine. In: Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, editors. Vaccines. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): Saunders; 1999. p. 553-607. [Back]

167 Wang EEL. Administration of pneumococcal vaccine. In: Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination. Canadian guide to clinical preventive health care. Ottawa: Health Canada; 1994. p. 386-95. [cited on 22 Apr 2002]. Available from url: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hppb/healthcare/pubs/clinical_preventive/pdf/s3c34e.pdf [Back]

168 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of pneumococcal disease: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Atlanta (GA): US Department of Health and Human Services; 1997. (MMWR Vol. 46 No. RR-8). [cited on 22 Apr 2002]. Available from url: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/RR/RR4608.pdf [Back]

169 Sisk JE, Moskowitz AJ, Whang W, Lin JD, Fedson DS, McBean AM, et al. Cost-effectiveness of vaccination against pneumococcal bacteremia among elderly people. JAMA 1997; 278: 1333-9. [Back]

170 Ament A, Baltussen R, Duru G, Rigaud-Bully C, de Graeve D, Ortqvist A,et al. Cost-effectiveness of pneumococcal vaccination of older people: a study in 5 western European countries. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 444-50. [Back]

171 Ament A, Fedson D, Christie P. Pneumococcal vaccination and pneumonia: even a low level of clinical effectiveness is highly cost-effective. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 2078-9. [Back]

172 Fletcher JT, Tunnicliffe WS, Hammond K, Roberts K, Ayres JG. Simultaneous immunisation with influenza vaccine and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in patients with chronic respiratory disease. BMJ 1997; 312: 1663-5. [Back]

173 Department of Health. Extending meningitis C vaccine to 20-24 Year Olds; pneumococcal vaccine for at-risk under 2 year olds. London: The Department; 2002. [cited 22 Apr 2002]. Available from url: http://www.doh.gov.uk/cmo/cmo0201.htm [Back]

174 Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Macfarlane R, Brittan N. Influence of patients' expectations on antibiotic management of acute lower respiratory tract illness in general practice: questionnaire study. BMJ 1997; 315: 1211-4. [Back]

175 Cockburn J, Pit S. Prescribing behaviour in clinical practice: patients' expectations and doctors' perceptions of patients' expectations- a questionnaire study. BMJ 1997; 315: 520-3. [Back]

176 Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Lum A, Barrett PH Jr. Decreasing antibiotic use in ambulatory practice: impact of a multidimensional intervention on the treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis in adults. JAMA 1999; 281: 1512-9. [Back] [section 10] [section 11]

177 Holmes WF, Macfarlane JT, Macfarlane RM, Lewis S. The influence of antibiotics and other factors on reconsultation for acute lower respiratory tract illness in primary care. Br J Gen Pract 1997; 47: 815-8. [Back]

178 Dosh SA, Hickner JM, Mainous AG 3rd, Ebell MH. Predictors of antibiotic prescribing for nonspecific upper respiratory infections, acute bronchitis, and acute sinusitis. A UPRNet study. Upper Peninsula Research Network. J Fam Pract 2000; 49: 407-14. [Back]

179 Kristinsson KG. Effect of antimicrobial use and other risk factors on antimicrobial resistance in pneumococci. Microb Drug Resist 1997; 3: 117-23. [Back]

180 Macfarlane JT, Holmes WF, Macfarlane RM. Reducing reconsultations for acute lower respiratory tract illness with an information leaflet: a randomised controlled study of patients in primary care. Br J Gen Pract 1997; 47: 719-22. [Back]

181 Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, Thornhill D, Macfarlane R, Hubbard R. Reducing antibiotic use for acute bronchitis in primary care: blinded, randomised controlled trial of patient information leaflet. BMJ 2002; 324: 91-4. [Back]

[Contents][Back][Top]

Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network
Home